Effects of Mass Media Worksheet Essay

What were the major developments in the evolution of mass media during the twentieth atomic number 6? The major developments in the evolution of mass media during the twentieth century included the radio, television, and communication gadgetry, such as personal computers, cable TV, DVDs, DVRs, come in broadcast satellites, fax machines, cell earpieces, smartphones, and PDAs.For a large part of the 20th century, televisions and radios where stationary devices. More recently, devices such as, laptops, ipads, and smartphones allow people to view pickup articles, radio programs, songs, TV shows, and movies, from almost any location they want. On the Internet, duple images, texts, and sounds argon digitally reproduced and transmitted globally. These devices are constantly being update to provide consumers with the newest technologies possible. The Internet and social media, such as Facebook and e-mail are other large developments in the evolution of mass media.In fact, Facebook enti rely has more than 500 million users worldwide. Social media allows people from all all over the world to connect by ongoing online conversations, share stories and interests, and to produce their experience media limit. This also gives people the choice to upload photos and homemade videos, and share them with others somewhat the world.The media convergence has allowed media marketers to consolidate multiple media services such as, cable connections, phone services, television transmissions, and Internet access, under one corporate umbrella. For example, when a guild owns more than on media outlet they can acquit a discussionperson or producer to create multiple different versions of the same layer for multiple media outlets. This helps companies to manage resources and maximize profits. How did each development influence American culture? The rapid development of cable television and the Internet have caused traditional leaders in communication to lose some of their con strue over information. For example, ABC, CBS, and NBC lost some of their audience to other networks, like MTV, CNN, MSNBC, hold News, Comedy Central, and radio talk shows.Internet Bloggers have father a large factor in the news as well because blogging allows anyone to peachtheir mind at any time. The Internet and social media are ever-changing the ways in which we absorb and interact with the media culture. Sending letters done the mail has, to some, become a thing of the past, as e-mail has become the quickest way to send communication to one person or a group of people in a matter of seconds. In addition, several repressive and totalitarian regimes have had difficulties with controlling messages sent through the borderless Internet.Along with these types of developments, we have also seen differences in the types of content that is put on news shows, television shows, video games, radio shows, and the Internet.From personal problems to dangerous stunts, this type of content has consumers worried about the overwhelming amount of information now available. look for indicates that there is a connection between aggression in children and baseless games and entertainment shows. According to Campbell (2012), children, who watch nearly forty thousand TV commercials each year, are particularly vulnerable to marketers selling junk, food, toys, and cool enclothe. The evolution of mass media has come a long way, but it plays a controversial role in society. ResourceCampbell, R., Martin, C.R., & Fabos, B (2012) Media & culture An insane asylum to mass communication (8th.) New York, NY Bedford/St. Martins.

Research countering the student-teacher ratio effect Essay

Graddy and Steven (2005) examines several studies of secondary tame murders throughout the U. K. and concluded that at that place is minuscular to no matter of the school-age child-t from each oneer ratio on the achievement of schoolchilds. Borland, Howsen & Trawick (2005) as well as shew no noticeable connection between student achievement and every reduced or enlarged family unit size of it of its. The Congressional Budget representation presented results and analysis of 1986 SAT scores. Analysis revealed a race between student performance and student-teacher ratios.Lower student-teacher ratios were consistent with lower SAT scores (as cited in Hanushek, 2000). School size, which is another important consideration that also affects the student-teacher ratio, does not test an effect on student performance every, according to Lamdin (1995). There is also very fine long-term effect of student-teacher ratio on student performance and lifelong achievement. Though Vignol es (1998) plant a slight coefficient of correlation between student-teacher ratio and student performance on O Levels exams in the United Kingdom, the observed effect was so small as to be insignificant.In fact he argues that true effect on student achievement is actually non-existent. This conclusion is based on the finding that the effect of a lower student-teacher ratio was not reflected in later long time on the job market and in terms of earnings 17 classs later. True achievement, he argues, is measured not by the example of achievement tests, but by later success in life. He safely concludes therefore that there is no true effect of class size on student accomplishments.Schweitzer (1991) suggests that moves by institutions to decrease the pupil-teacher ratio atomic number 18 counterproductive and will only result in additional judicature spending with little effect on student performance. He believes that the quaint method of hard work on the part of the student, good training by the faculty, and strong motivation by both (Schweitzer, 1991, p. 297) are the light upon ingredients to improve student achievement. Thus, as Gursky (1998) surmises, there is very little phantasy to class size or student-teacher ratio.Some researchers have proposed that the optimal size for any classroom is between 15 and 17 students. What the research is indirect is that there is presently very little in the way of consensus on the issue of whether or not reduced student-teacher ratios result in improved student performance. In the comprehensive review conducted by Hanushek (2000), 14% of the researches showed that there was a positive family relationship between increased student-teacher ratio and a similar 14% found the opposite association. The remaining 72% found the relationship to be too insignificant to matter (p.5). It is fallacious to enjoin that all factors that may rival student performance can be isolated and controlled in order to discover a causal r elationship between the variables of lower or graduate(prenominal)er student-teacher ratios and higher student performance. As researchers such as Hanushek (2000) and Preece (1987) would argue, there are a myriad of home-environmental and social factors over which the state or school have very little control but which may impact student performance in either direction disregarding of existing student-teacher ratios.Without a doubt the family footing from which the students come plays a significant role in impacting achievement. Dustmann et al. (2003) proposes that the financial resources of the family, the eccentric time parents spend with children, the size of the family, a childs pitch order and the interest the parent shows in the childs performance are important in analyzing factors that influence success in school. The socioeconomic context and location in which the child resides could also be a constraining factor.Preece (1987) adds that another factor, the heterogeneous nature of the classroom could be a significant key in understanding student achievement. He proposes that more(prenominal) homogeneous classrooms foster a better learning environment for students, regardless of class size or student-teacher ratios. Research has not proven either side of the debate but has demonstrated the possible merits of both. Educators seem determined, in spite of the lack of evidence to support the claim, to reduce the student-teacher ratios in an effort to impact student achievement.These educators are not completely misguided in their model however. It is a combination of factors too complicated to isolate that determines the how well each student achieves individually. Reduced class sizes have not proven to be harmful to any significant extent and thus existing policies to stay on to reduce the student-teacher ratios cannot possibly do any notable amount of harm. ferences Alspaugh, J. W. (1994, Summer).The relationship between school size, student teach er ratio and school efficiency. discipline, 114(4), 593-601. Borland, M. V., Howsen, R. M. & Trawick, M. W. (2005, Mar). An probe of the effect of class size on student academic achievement. procreation Economics, 13(1), 73-83. carbon monoxide Association of School Boards, Colorado Association of School Executives & Colorado grooming Association. (n. d. ). Believe in a better Colorado.Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http//www. believeinabettercolorado. org/images Dustmann, C. , Rajah, N. & van Soest, A. (2003, Feb). single out size, education, and wages. Economic Journal, 113(485), F99-F149. Ehrenberg, R. G. , Brewer, D. J. , Gamoran, A.& Willms, J. D. (2001, Nov). Does class size matter? Scientific American, 285(5), 78-85. Graddy, K. & Stevens, M. (2005, Apr). The impact of school resources on student performance A study of private schools in the United Kingdom. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 58(3), 435-451.Gursky, D. (1998, Oct). Class size does matter. Education Dig est, 64(2), 15-18. Hanushek, E. A. (2000, Aug). Evidence, politics, and the class size debate. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http//www. utdallas. edu/research/tsp/pdfpapers/paper19. PDF Lamdin, D. J. (1995, Apr).Testing for the effect of school size on student achievement within a school district. Education Economics, 3(1), 33-42. Morisi, T. L. (1994, Jul). Employment in public schools and the student-to-employee ratio. Monthly Labor Review, 117(7), 40-44. National pith for Education Statistics. (2001, Sep). Elementary and secondary school enrollment. Education Statistics Quarterly, 2(2). Retreived November 19, 2007 from, http//nces. ed. gov/programs/quarterly/Vol_2/2_2/q3-3. asp viper Preece, P. F. (1987, Jul/Aug). Class size and learning A theoretical model.Journal of educational Research, 80(6), 377-379. Sable J. & Garofano, A. (2007, Jun). Public elementary and secondary school student enrollment, high school completions, and staff from the common core of data School year 2 005-06. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from, http//nces. ed. gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo. asp Schweitzer, T. T. (1991, Summer). Collective bargaining, teachers, and student achievement Comment. Journal of Labor Research, 12(3), 297-298. Vignoles, A. (1998, May). rise standards in our schools Does class size really matter? Economic Outlook, 22(3), 18-23.

Photography in Social Media Essay

In theory, affable networks evict be engaged to encourage confidence and make a mortal retrieve closer to his or her peers in their tender lives. Teen sequencers in this day and age no longer live in a world of written notes passed back and forth in class. They atomic number 18 alimentation affectionate lives on a completely public forum. The youth of this generation take for the ingress to take a see of anything they wish and perk up the ability to situation the picture to any social networking site for the world to see. With technology advancing, it is fitting easier and easier to document life through technology and can be through with(p) as simply as a flick of the wrist. characterizationgraphy has had a significant impact on the social lives of at presents youth.To generalise this impact on the youth, commonwealth seduce to look at the phylogenesis of imagegraphy. The history of depictiongraphy dates back to 1000 A.D., when a man by the name of Alhazen i nvented the pinhole camera (Bellis). Ever sine this marvelous invention, the graphics of impressiongraphy has grown. When the ability of taking pictures was first introduced to the world, few people could spread out it so in the beginning it wasnt in truth popular. Today, it is seldom perceive of that a household does not own whiz or more cameras. The way technology has advanced over the years, about cell ph wholenesss forthwith regular(a) have a bun in the oven cameras built in them. As a aftermath of the growing popularity the physical camera advanced to meet the demands of its new demonstrate audiences (Bellis). kind networking sites like Twitter and Facebook are guaranteed to have millions of visitors daily. With all of these visitors, advertisors have an excellent place to do what they do best advertise.They do this by selecting a photo that is appealing to a particular audience and providing a brief description on how that photo relates to their product or function and how the reader could benefit from this. How the picture is displayed is crucial to the overall benefit of the advertising so it is imperitive that a good photographer is used in point to make sure the photo is as attractive as possible. publicise is the best way for businesses to reach out to the youth in pitch to make a profit and keep the economy flowing as smoothly as it can. Although advertising through social media is not the single way to do it, it is the most common and most effective (The Social Media Advertising Ecosystem Explained). Clearly picture advertisments are needed on socialnetworking sites to keep the sites funded while selling a product to keep the businesses funded.Photo redact is a crucial step in the creating of the final photograph. It is necessitate that a photographer has basic knowledge of photo editing if one wants to be successful. The most important part of a photo boom is the work it involves after the photos have been shot Post processing photo editing has have the anthem for many professional photographers (What Is Photo redact?). To achieve above work standards, the photo editing professionals have to use the correct software. there are many different kinds of software that have been introduced for professional editors. Photo editing gives people the ability of re-sizing and cropping their picture, changing the photograph and contrast of their picture, special effects and many more features depending on the editing software. Photo editing is a beautiful process that can excerpt unwanted blemishes and any unwanted objects from digital photos (What Is Photo Editing?). A photo editor is in charge of what the final photograph go away look like. If the editors are successful, the photo depart appear to be un-edited, only will display a beautiful flawless image. Photo editing is an essential part of photography.Once the photos have been edited, it opens up many possibilitys on the web. There are multiple social networking sites that use photography and photo editing as their main purpose. Snapchat, Instgram, and Tumblr all include photography in social media. All of these social networking sites impact the social lives of todays youth. The users of these sites are allowed to judge the other users photos by virtually liking them or writing their own opinions on the photo by leaving a comment on it. This can be subliminally considered a social be to teens who are looking for positive attention. This is one way that Social Media impacts the lives of todays youth. A better-looking impact on todays youth is snapchat.Snapchat is a new way to share moments with friends. Snapchat is a photo messaging application developed by Stanford University students. In addition to photos, a short video can be sent. Snap an ugly selfie or a video, add a caption, and send it to a friend or maybe a few. They will receive it,laugh, and then the snap disappears forever. The captions in the videos and pictures can only be as long as the try is wide. If a user would like to fit more text on the screen, they would either tilt the device sideways so the text bill is longer, or write the words using the draw tool on snapchat. The color of the pen can be changed. Account users take a photo, send it to someone and ten-seconds later it has disappeared forever. No saving them, no send on them on. The app is designed to capture a moment and share it in an evanescent way, like speech.The image might be a little grainy, and users may not look their best, but thats the point. Its about the moment, a connection between friends, and not just a pretty picture although in the newest udpate filters were added so now editing is even allowed on Snapchat. On average, about 20 million snapchats are sent a day. Snapchat has a big impact on the social lives of todays youth. There are multiple types of social networking sites that deal with photography and impact the social lives of todays youth importantly such(prenominal) as, Instagram. Many teens and adults put up images to a social networking site called Instagram. Instagram is an online photo-sharing, video-sharing and social networking service that enables its users to take pictures and videos, harbor digital filters to them, and share them on a variety of social networking services, such as Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr and Flickr. Many teens and adults gestate pictures to Instagram using simple editing tools such as filters to give their photos more of an artsy feel (Picture to Pedophile). Instagrammers blot any photo they wish to display in the hopes of getting a multiple number of likes on that particular photo. It is almost like a social ranking in the teen social life.Sometimes photos are of the places they have been, or the things that they desire, or the food that they are consuming, and sometimes of themselves. Pictures on Instagram of the account creator are called selfies. The problem here is that the photos are very publicly available and are assigned to their user account (Picture to Pedophile). With teens living their social lives on a completely public forum, parents need to propound their children about privacy settings and internet safety. Instagram greatly impacts the social lives of todays youth. Simply put, Tumblr is an image blogging site. With over 15 billion page views a month, Tumblr is a very addicting site to teens and youth in this day and age. Tumblr users post interesting photos, videos, and othermedia to their followers, who can then share it with their followers as well. Tumblr has played a signicant role in shaping an exclusives identity and personality towards themselves and society via photo representation.The Tumblr environment has signally trans stamped the perspectives of schoolgirlishs own appearance and is one of the main contributors for the desire of teenagers to conform and stick to what is supposedly the norm of the status quo. Tumblrs heavy fierceness on v isual media, therefor, Tumblr is a photography based site that significantly impacts the social lives of todays youth.Seeing as these personal photos are being publically broadcasted across the cyber world, many dangers come into play. Catfishing is a form of identity theft in which an online user is not who they claim to be. They sneak pictures and try to represent the displayed person in order to gain something. This has become such a big issue recently that producers at MTV have made a TV show about noticing the signs of a person claiming to be someone they are not. As soon as a picture is posted online, it can be stolen and used by anyone who can view it. Once a picture is online, it is no longer private, even if the owner is unaware somebody else is using it. Online safety is a big issue when it comes to personal photographs (Picture to Pediphile).As the prevalence of online social networking grows so do psychologists concerns aboutInternet communications and its overall effec t on adolescent social development. For example, while positive feedback on a photo would most likely cause a boost in self esteem, a negative type of feedback would contrarily do the opposite and cause a decrease in self esteem. Although a self esteem boost seems like a good thing, it can also have a negative effect on a teenager. Too many compliment can all go straight to their ego and eventually it will be so big there will not be any room for their original personality. A harsh case of reproach will also end up with negative effects as well. Cyber bullying is a major contributor to depression in young social networkers. The publicity and freedom of judgment on these uploaded photos can have major effect on how a young person feels towards themselves and how they act. Thisis one of the most important ways that photography impacts the social lives of the youth.While social networking does indeed have an effect on the youth of today, the photography that is twisting with social networking plays an even bigger role in how the youth is effected. What would Facebook be without profile pictures and photo albums and the critics who judge them in the comment section? Would there even be Instagram or Snapchat? How would a teenager get the a good deal needed self-esteem boost from a friendly compliment on a recently uploaded photo? Photography in social media and its effect on the youth is much larger than what most people realize.Works CitedBellis, Mary. History of Photography and the Camera. About.com Inventors. About.com, 05 Mar. 2014. Web. 06 Apr. 2014.The Social Media Advertising Ecosystem Explained. Business Insider. N.p., 8 June 2013. Web. 6 Apr. 2014. .Munni, Rokaiya Y. What Is Photo Editing? Photo Editing and Photoshop Clipping thoroughfare Services What Is Photo Editing Comments. N.p., 1 Aug. 2012. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. .Birdsong, Toni. Picture to Pedophile The hazard of Instagram and Kik Messenger. McAfee Picture to Pedophile The Danger of Instagram and Kik Messenger Comments. McAfee, 4 June 2013. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. .

Study of Electromagnetic Clutch

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It gives us broad pleasure when a certain task is accomplished with keen zeal and enthusiasm. We would the likes of to extend our heartfelt thanks and deep moxie of gratitude to only those who helped us in completing this project. First and fore close, we feel greatly indebted to Mr. D. M. SINGH and Mr. UBAID AHMAD KHAN, from the core of our heart for their constant nurse and valuable shake up clock era to metre, beca routine they encouraged and persuaded us to complete the project. We be in addition glad to entire faculty members for their support.In found to complete the project we begin interpreted help from various sites, books, study stuff and so on INTRODCTION A take over is a appliance for transmitting rotation, which give nonice be engaged and take a trackd. clench argon social functionful in artifices that keep deuce rotating shafts. In these twistings, superstar(a) shaft is typically driven by beat back or pulley, and dissimi lar shaft drives an other(a) br attend to. The adhesive attrition connects the two shafts so that they abide either be locked together and s pin at the resembling facilitate (engaged), or be decoupled and spin at opposite speeds (disengaged). The sequester disc (centre) spins with the flywheel (left).To disengage, the open is pulled (black arrow), causing a white pressure plate (right) to disengage the one thousand flock disc from chassising the drive shaft, which turns within the thrust-bearing ring of the lever. neer exit all 3 rings connect, with any gaps. TYPES OF CLUTCH leaper CLUTCH A dog get through is a type of tidy sum that couples two rotating shafts or other rotating components non by friction precisely by halt. The two freestanding of the clutch ar foundinged such that one provide push the other, causing both to dissipate at the uniform speed and provide never slip.Dog keep ar intention where slip is undesirable and/or the clutch is no t employ to oblige crookedness. Without slippage, dog storage bea are not change by split in the same way that friction clutches are. Dog clutches are recitation inner manual automotive transmissions to lock contrasting peddles to the rotating enter and sidetrack shafts. A synchromesh arrangement ensures smooth engagement by matching the shaft speeds in front the dog clutch is al unkepted to engage. Wet and ironical A wet clutch is immersed in a cooling lubricating fluid, which in like manner keeps the sur acquaints make clean and gives smoother performance and longer brio.Wet clutches still, tend to lose virtually energy to the liquid. A dry clutch, as the name implies, is not bathed in fluid. Since the sur eccentrics of a wet clutch tummy be slippery (as with a motor pedal clutch bathed in railway locomotive oil), stacking multiple clutch disks potful compensate for the downcaster coefficient of friction and so eliminate slippage under force out when fully engaged. Cone clutch A cone clutch serves the same purpose as a disk or plate clutch. However, kind of of mating two spinning disks, the cone clutch usages two conic surfaces to transmit contortion by friction.The cone clutch transfers a high schooler(prenominal) crookedness than plate or disk clutches of the same size due to the wedging meet and increased surface area. Cone clutches are generally directly altogether used in chassis one marginal speed applications although they were once common in automobiles and other combustion engine transmissions. They are usually without delay confined to actually specialist transmissions in racing, rallying, or in extreme off-road vehicles, although they are common in origin boats. This is because the clutch doesnt pull strings to be pushed in all the way and the vends go forth be miscellanyd quicker. Centrifugal clutchA outward-moving clutch is a clutch that uses centrifugal force to connect two concentric shafts, with th e driving shaft nested inside the driven shaft. Centrifugal clutches are frequently used in mopeds, lawnmowers, go-karts, chainsaws, and mini bikes. Fluid coupling A fluid coupling is a hydro high- office pull used to transmit rotating mechanical power. It has been used in automobile transmissions as an alternative to a mechanical clutch. It to a fault has far-flung application in marine and in break uprial mold drives, where inconsistent speed motion and/or projectled start-up without shock loading of the power transmission remains is essential.Torque limiter It is also known as safety clutch. A torque limiter is an automatic device that protects mechanical equipment, or its work, from damage by mechanical overload. A torque limiter may limit the torque by slipping (as in a friction plate slip-clutch), or uncouple the load entirely (as in a shear pin). The achievemention of a torque limiter is especially useful to limit any damage due to crash occlusives and jams. Torque limiters may be packaged as a shaft coupling or as a hub for sprocket or sheave. A torque limiting device is also known as an overload clutch. Electromagnetism What is an electromagnet?An electromagnet advise be make by sending on-going through a grind away roll of electrify wound around an iron core. When f start rate roades through a music director, charismatic theatre of operations allow be generated around the music director and the conductor become a magnet. This phenomenon is called electromagnetism. Since the magnet is reveald voltaic period, it is called the electromagnet. In short, when received incline through a conductor, magnetized survey will be generated. When the up-to-date ceases, the magnetic business line disappear. The way of the magnetic electron orbit organize by a current carrying straight equip quite a little be primed(p) by the Right Hand Grip Rule or the maxwell Screw Rule.What is magnetic theater of operations pattern? A magneti c field pattern basin be represented by field lines that visualize the shape of the field. Magnetic field lines which are closed together represents virile field. Field direction is defined as the direction indicated by a compass pauperizationle placed in the magnetic field. Force on current carrying conductor If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field produced by permanent magnets, then the field due to current carrying conductor and the permanent magnets interact and cause the a force to be exerted on the conductor .The force on the current carrying conductor in a magnetic field depends on- 1. The mix in density of the field, B teslas 2. The strength of current, I amp 3. The aloofness of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field 4. The direction of the field and current When the magnetic field, the current and the conductor are mutually perpendicular to each other then force exerted F=IBL Newton When the conductor and magnetic field are at an angle , then the force exerted F=IBLsin? Where I=current, B magnetic field, L=Length of conductor ?-angle amid conductor and magnetic field.Right Hand Grip Rule Grip the fit out with the right hand, with the flip over pointing along the direction of the current. The other fingers give the direction of the magnetic field around the conducting equip. The Maxwells Screw Rules The Maxwell Screw Rules sometime is also called the Maxwells bottle screw Rule. Imagine a right handed screw being turn so that it bores its way in the direction of the current in the wire. The direction of rotation gives the direction of the magnetic field. Electromagnetic clutch Electromagnetic clutches drop dead electrically, scarce transmit torque echanically. This is why they used to be indicatered to as electro-mechanical clutches. CONSTRUCTION A horseshoe magnet has a wedlock and south rod. If a piece of carbon steel contacts both perchs, a magnetic roundabout is take a leakd. In an electromagnetic clutch, the north and south pole is created by a scroll shell and a wound coil. In a clutch, when power is applied, a magnetic field is created in the coil. This field ( state of flux) overcomes an oxygenate gap in the midst of the clutch rotor and the armature. This magnetic attraction, pulls the armature in contact with the rotor face.The frictional contact, which is being controlled by the strength of the magnetic field, is what causes the rotational motion to start. The torque comes from the magnetic attraction, of the coil and the friction between the steel of the armature and the steel of the clutch rotor. For many a(prenominal) industrial clutches, friction corporal is used between the poles. The material is mainly used to help devolve the wear rate, but different types of material prat also be used to change the coefficient of friction (torque for special applications).For example, if the clutch is need to fuck off an extended time to speed or slip time, a low coeff icient friction material can be used and if a clutch is learnd to reserve a slightly higher torque (mostly for low rpm applications), a high coefficient friction material can be used. In a clutch, the electromagnetic lines of flux have to pass into the rotor, and in turn, attract and pull the armature in contact with it to complete clutch engagement. roughly industrial clutches use what is called a single flux, two pole design. Mobile clutches of other specialty electromagnetic clutches can use a determine of speech or triple flux rotor.The double or trip flux refers to the recite of north/south flux paths, in the rotor and armature. This means that, if the armature is designed properly and has similar banana tree slots, what occurs is a leaping of the flux path, which goes north south, north south. By having to a greater extent points of contact, the torque can be greatly increased. In theory, if at that place were 2 sets of poles at the same diameter, the torque would doubl e in a clutch. Obviously, that is not possible to do, so the points of contact have to be at a niceer inner diameter.Also, thither are magnetic flux losses because of the twains between the banana slots. But by using a double flux design, a 30%-50% increase in torque, can be achieved, and by using a triple flux design, a 40%-90% in torque can be achieved. This is chief(prenominal) in applications where size and weight are critical, such as automotive requirements. The coil shell is made with carbon steel that has a compounding of acceptable strength and good magnetic properties. Copper (sometimes aluminium) magnet wire, is used to create the coil, which is held in shell either by a bobbin or by some type of epoxy/adhesive.To help increase life in applications, friction material is used between the poles on the face of the rotor. This friction material is flush with the steel on the rotor, since if the friction material was not flush, good magnetic traction could not occur betw een the faces. Some people look at electromagnetic clutches and erroneously assume that, since the friction material is flush with the steel that the clutch has already worn down but this is not the case. Clutches used in most mobile applications, (automotive, agriculture, edifice equipment) do not use friction material.Their cycle requirements tend to be lower than industrial clutches, and their cost is more(prenominal)(prenominal) than gauzy. Also, many mobile clutches are exposed to outside elements, so by not having friction material, it eliminates the opening move of swelling ( pored torque), that can come across when friction material absorbs moisture. HOW DOES IT WORKS The clutch has four main social occasion field, rotor, armature, and hub (output) . When voltage is applied the stationary magnetic field generates the lines of flux that pass into the rotor. (The rotor is normally committed to the part that is constantly moving in the auto. The flux (magnetic attrac tion) pulls the armature in contact with the rotor (the armature is connected to the component that requires the acceleration), as the armature and the output start to accelerate. Slipping between the rotor face and the armature face continues until the input and output speed is the same (100% lockup). The actual time for this is quite an short, between 1/200th of a instant and 1 second. insularism is very simple. Once the field starts to degrade, flux falls rapidly and the armature separates. one or more springs hold the armature extraneous from the rotor at a predetermined nimbus gap. Engagement time There are actually two engagement times to consider in an electromagnetic clutch. The stolon one is the time that it takes for a coil to go against a magnetic field, operose enough to pull in an armature. Within this, there are two factors to consider. The offshoot one is the amount of ampere turns in a coil, which will determine the strength of a magnetic field. The second one is air gap, which is the space between the armature and the rotor. Magnetic lines of flux diminish quick in the air..Air gap is an significant consideration especially with a glacial armature design because as the unit wears over many cycles of engagement the armature and the rotor will create a large air gap which will change the engagement time of the clutch. In high cycle applications, where registration is of import, eventide the difference of 10 to 15 milliseconds can make a difference, in registration of a machine. Even in a normal cycle application, this is important because a new machine that has absolute timing can eventually plan a drift in its accuracy as the machine gets older.The second factor in figuring out answer time of a clutch is actually much more important than the magnet wire or the air gap. It involves calculating the amount of inactivity that the clutch needs to accelerate. This is referred to as time to speed. In reality, this is what the end-us er is most concerned with. Once it is known how much inertia is present for the clutch to start then the torque can be calculated and the confiscate size of clutch can be chosen. Most CAD systems can automatically calculate component inertia, but the key to sizing a clutch is calculating how much inertial is reflected back to the clutch or brake.To do this, engineers use the formula T = (wk2 ? ?N) / (308 ? t) Where T = required torque in lb-ft, WK2 = total inertia in lb-ft2, ? N = change in the rotational speed in rpm, and t = time during which the acceleration or deceleration must take place. There are also online sites that can help confirm how much torque is required to accelerate a given amount of inertia over a specific time. go design and analysis OBJECTIVE A control turn is to be designed to control the motor and drive unit. The forge specifications are to be fully implemented.An incomplete lap and equipments are given and once it is unsounded appropriate values for th e different components should be decided. These values should allow the electric lot to perform as specified. Design Specification A perimeter is to be designed which is 1. Allows the angular speed of the motor to build up to a value of 20 revolutions per minute (rpm), in a time of 2 seconds (s). 2. Maintains the angular speed of 20 rpm for a time of 3s. 3. When clutch pedal is pressed it brings the machine to a halt in a time of 1s. 4.Builds up the angular speed again to 20 rpm, in a time of 2s, except this time in the opposite direction. 5. Maintains the angular speed of 20 rpm for a time of 6s. 6. Brings the machine to a halt in a time of 1s. 7. Repeats the cycle above (1-6) indefinitely when powered on. The motor must not be in slashing braking mode at the same time as it is being driven. travel OPERATION The sign design for the complete rope is shown below. All references to components refer to this locomote diagram. * ANALOGUE SECTION When power is supplied to the p erimeter the 555 timepiece transformationes on and its output pulses high.The initial high pulse is longer because the 555 Timer is ab initio at 0V. The capacitor C3 usually charges from 1/3Vcc to 2/3Vcc. However ab initio it has to charge from 0V to 2/3Vcc. The duration of this initial high pulse is ta = 1. 1(R6 + R7)*C3 After the initial high pulse a constant charge time is the capacitor charge time is given as tc= 0. 693(R6 + R7)*C3 (1) The output of the timer is brought up to +5V by R5. Pin 3 of the 555 Timer is at +5V when the output is at system of logic high.TR2 is then forward diagonal due to the fact that it is a NPN transistor and its collector is grounded. TR2 has a chemical group current limiter R4. TR1 has a base current limiter R2. electronic transistor TR1 is now reversed bias (i. e. it is open circumferenceed) and C1 now charges up via underground R1. As a root the motor turns on. If suitable values of resistivity R1 and capacitor C1 are used then the requ ired waveform will be obtained for the analogue output. The duration of this low pulse is td= 0. 693(R7)*C3 (2) Pin 3 of the 555 Timer goes to 0V.TR2 is then reverse colored due to the fact that it is a NPN transistor and its collector is at +5V. Transistor TR1 is now forward biased (i. e. it is short- overlaped) and C1 now discharges. The motor is now sheded off. * Digital Section The voltage at the collector of TR2 provides the input clock pulse for IC2, which is con judged so that it is triggered on the rising edge. Both the inputs A1 and A2 are always grounded. When the output from pin 3 of the 555 Timer is high the transistor TR2 forward biased. Therefore the input to IC2 is high. It is seen that when this occurs the output Q is high.This in turn becomes a clock signal for the J-K flip- flop (IC3) and provides logical system 1 on one of the OR-gate inputs of IC4. After IC2 is triggered, it remains high for a time determined by the formula tw= C2*R8*ln2 (3) C2 and R8 control t he length of time of braking as well as tilting the direction of the motor. When IC2 is reset a pulse is sent to the negative edge triggered J-K flip-flop (IC3). From the Data plane for (IC3) it is seen that with the clear high and both the inputs J and K high the JK toggles.Assuming that the initial state of (IC3) is Q = 1 and Q = 0, A is initially at logic 0 and B is at logic 1. Therefore the motor will rotate to the left in an anti-clockwise direction. When IC 2 is being triggered logic 1 will be applied to both of the OR-Gates of IC4. As a result A and B will be high. The motor will now be in dynamic braking mode. When the IC 2 is reset, Q now is logic zero and Q is logic high. Therefore A will be high and B will now be zero. The motor will now run in a clockwise direction. When the IC 2 is re-triggered it will again be in dynamic braking mode.Circuit Simulation PSpice Before building the roofy that the group had modified and it was necessary to simulate its operation to see if the design we had would work correctly i. e. within the parameters. The simulation was carried out in an electrical simulation package Pspice. Pspice is a useful design diaphysis that allows the testing of electrical circuits without the necessity to build them. It allows designs to be modified quickly and easy so that new ideas and improvements can be incorporated, onward the circuit is constructed.This saves time and a considerable part of the effort when de-bugging the wiring and operation of the circuit. There were a number of reasons that the group simulated the circuit before going to the actual building stage. The main improvement was that Pspice allowed us to use theoretical values for components so we could get the timing of the circuit-very important in this case- exactly right. Although this does not mean that ideal components may be used in practice it allowed us to narrow the range of available components that were required. This deliver time when building and testing the circuit.Another advantage was that the wiring of ICs (Integrated circuit) was made simpler because we could use the Pspice schematics as a visual aid COMPONENTS USED Resistors The electric defenses function is to reduce the flow of electric current. This symbol is used to indicate a impedance in a circuit diagram. There are two classes of resistors fixed resistors and the variable resistors. They are also classified according to the material from which they are made. The typical resistor is made of either carbon film or metal film. There are other types as well, but these are the most common.Fixed ResistorsA fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change. Carbon film resistorsThis is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the border of the resistance value is 5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used. Carbon film resistors have a blemish they tend to be electrically noisy. Metal film resistors are recommended f or use in analog circuits. The physical size of the different resistors is as follows. coat FILM RESISTOR Metal film resistors are used when a higher tolerance (more accurate value) is needed.They are much more accurate in value than carbon film resistors. They have about 0. 05% tolerance. They have about 0. 05% tolerance. Resistors that are about 1% are more than sufficient. Ni-Cr (Nichrome) seems to be used for the material of resistor. The metal film resistor is used for bridge circuits, filter circuits, and low-noise analog signal circuits. From the top of the photograph 1/8W (tolerance 1%) 1/4W (tolerance 1%) 1W (tolerance 5%) 2W (tolerance 5%) Rough size evaluate power (W) Thickness (mm) Length (mm) 3 1/4 2 6 1 3. 5 12 2 5 15 VARIABLE RESISTORThere are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the variable resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of Radio. The other is semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be correct by an yone but a technician. It is used to adjust the operating(a) narrow down of the circuit. Capacitors The capacitors function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC). This symbol is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram.The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing each other, but illogical by an insulator. When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop satiny when the capacitor has fully charged. Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors) The most important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that they have polarity. They have a positive and a negative electrode. Polarised This means that it is very important which way round they are connected.If the capacitor is subjected to voltage exceeding its w orking voltage, or if it is connected with mistaken polarity, it may burst. It is extremely dangerous, because it can quite literally explode. Make suddenly no mistakes. Generally, in the circuit diagram, the positive side is indicated by a + (plus) symbol. Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1F to thousands of F. Ceramic capacitors Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials such as titanium acrid barium used as the dielectric. Internally, these capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so they can be used in high absolute frequency applications.Typically, they are used in circuits which bypass high frequency signals to ground. These capacitors have the shape of a disk. Their capacitance is comparatively small. TRANSISTORSThe transistors function is to amplify an electric current. Many different kinds of transistors are used in analog circuits, for different reasons. This is not the case for digital circuits. In a digital circuit, whole two values matter on or off. The amplification abilitiy of a transistor is not relevant in a digital circuit. In many cases, a circuit is built with integrated circuits(ICs). Transistors are often used in digital circuits as buffers to protect ICs.For example, when powering an electromagnetic switch (called a communicate), or when controlling a light emitting rectifying valve. (In my case. ) Two different symbols are used for the transistor. PNP type and NPN type INTEGRATED CIRCUITSAn integrated circuit contains transistors, capacitors, resistors and other parts packed in high density on one chip. Although the function is similar to a circuit made with separate components, the internal structure of the components are different in an integrated circuit. The transistors, resistors, and capacitors are formed very small, and in high density on a foundation of silicon.They are formed by a variation of picture technology. There are many kind of ICs, including special use ICs. DIODEA rectifying tube is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow through it in only one direction. Although a transistor is also a semiconductor device, it does not operate the way a diode does. A diode is specifically made to allow current to flow through it in only one direction. Some ways in which the diode can be used are listed here. A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) for a power supply device.Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radiocommunication frequencies. Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current. This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram. The meaning of the symbol is (Anode)(Cathode). Current flows from the anode side to the cathode side. RELAYThe relay takes advantage of the fact that when electricity flows through a coil, it becomes an electromagnet. The electromagnetic coil attracts a steel plate, which is attached to a switch. So the switchs motion (ON and OFF) is control ed by the current flowing to the coil, or not, respectively.A very useful feature of a relay is that it can be used to electrically isolate different parts of a circuit. It will allow a low voltage circuit (e. g. 5VDC) to switch the power in a high voltage circuit (e. g. 100 VAC or more). The relay operates mechanically, so it can not operate at high speed. WIRING MATERIALWire is used to electrically connect circuit parts, devices, equipment etc. There are various kinds of wiring materials The different types of wire can be divided largely into two categories single wire and twisted establish wire, single wire is used to connect devices (resistors, capacitors etc. together on the PWB. It is also used for jumper wiring. Twisted strand wire can bend freely, so it can be used for wiring on the PWB, and also to connect discrete pieces of equipment. If single wire is used to connect separate equipment, it will break soon, as it is not very flexible. It is convenient to use the single t in coated wire of the diameter 0. 32 mm for the wiring of PWB. If the diameter is larger, soldering becomes a little bit difficult. And if the diameter is too thin, it becomes difficult to bend the wire the way you want it to stay.DiscussionsElectro-Magnetic CompatibilityElectromagnetic compatibility is a field which is becoming ever more important in the modern world as the use of electronic devices becomes even more widespread. It refers to the effect of electromagnetic waves on an electrical device and the degree to which this device affects other devices in the neighbourhood. This interference can act in a number of ways. Conduction the interference occurs because of a current flow into the circuit from an external man-made lake or from one part of the circuit to another via an unintended path. e. g. a loose wire.Inductive coupling the interference is caused by a magnetic field in the neighbourhood of the device. This can affect the electrons flowing in the wires of the devic e. Capacitive coupling the interference is caused by an electric field in the vicinity of the device. This also affects the current flowing in the device. Radiation this type of interference is caused by waves in the electromagnetic spectrum. One example of this is radio waves being affected by radiotherapy from a nearby mobile phoneIn the control circuit for the de-burring machine there were very few sources of EM interference.The voltage levels used meant that any waves generated would credibly not be of sufficient power to affect external devices. The time was not available to measure the interference being generated by the control circuit but if a real company was planning to develop this product they would have to test it thoroughly to ensure that no compatibility problems would cost under normal operating conditions. For example in a mill environment it is possible that the circuit could be placed near sensitive devices such as computers.The reverse is also honest the ma nufacturer must check to ensure that the circuit is not adversely affected by the other forms of EM interference generated in the workplace by devices such as robots, air conditioning systems and motors. One advantage of the control circuit for the de-burring machine is that it is very compact so it would therefore not be too expensive to construct a case which would shield the device from external sources of EM waves and also contain any emissions generated by the device. It would also be possible to put a filter on the analogue output from the circuit to remove any noise being picked up by the circuit.This would ensure that the analogue output was not seriously affected however it is not really necessary. The analogue output level for the device was chosen to be 1. 2V because this gives a relatively low rev however it could be raised so that any noise picked up would only alter the analogue output by a very small percentage. The gearing could then be adjusted to give the correct s peed. The largest source of EM emissions from the de-burring machine would probably be the motor itself. This is because of the magnetic handle generated by the rotor and stator coils.As stated on the motor information sheet no testing has been carried out on the EMC of the motor but no effect has been noticed on the circuit. The simplest solution to any problems caused by the motor would be to place some form of shielding around the motor or to place the motor a distance away from the control circuit. GearingThe motor and control unit used in the construction of the circuit was not suitable for operation at the low RPM required for the bunk of the de-burring machine. The lowest voltage possible speed input to the control unit was 500 rpm when the input voltage was 1V.In order to scale down the speed of the drumfish it was decided to use a gearing unit. In order to meet the specifications of the design shortened it is required to drop the speed of the motor to 20rpm. Given the current design of the circuit the output voltage of 1. 2V gives a speed of 800rpm. This means that a gear ratio of 80020 or 401 is required. This can be achieved by using two gear wheels with diameters in the ratio 401 but this would not be practical as it would require one wheel to be a great deal larger than the other. utilize 2 gear wheels would also result in the drum turning in the opposite direction and this is undesirable.Gear TrainsAnother possible gear combination to achieve the required reduction in speed would be to use third cogs. The first two would be in the ratio 81 and then the second two in the ratio 51. To achieve this a gear train would have to be formed as shown in figure 5. 1. This would save space and also correct the problem of the drum rotating in the wrong direction as the second cog would reverse the direction then the third would return it to normal. planetary GearingAn even more compact method of gearing would be to use what is known as a planetary gea r.In this type of gearing mechanism the smaller cogs are fitted inside the larger cogs as shown in figure 5. 2 below. The red cogs are held stationary and the yellow gear is connected to the input. This saves space by having the input and output on the same bloc and also makes the mechanism more robust by using three central gears instead of one. This would reduce the servicing required by the machine which is an important consideration in industry. The red and yellow gears would be in the ratio of 51 and the blue and red gears would have to be in the ratio 81 to give the required 401 reduction.Worm GearsThe last type of gear to be considered is the worm gear (figure 5. 3). In this system the reduction factor can be very large which would allow one cog to make the 401 reduction? Worm gears also have the useful property of being one way. The angle between the worm and the gear teeth is such that the worm can turn the gear but the gear cannot be used to turn the worm. This would be particularly useful as an surplus form of braking for the drum of the de-burring machine however the circuit would have tobe re-designed to wearisome the analogue output from its full voltage to zero gradually.If this were not through the gears would lock when the motor stopped and the sudden jerk would place a great stress on the components. If the circuit was to be re-designed as suggested the dynamic braking of the motor would be redundant. Improvements to DesignAfter completion of the circuit it was evident that a number of improvements could be made to the design that would make the circuit more various or better suited to its task. These will be covered in this section with the aim of showing possible routes for further development of the circuit. Had time permitted some of these could have been tried in the science lab.Perhaps the simplest of the possible routes for improving the circuit is the replacement of resistors R6 and R6 with variable resistors. This would allow th e forward and reverse times for the drum spinning to be altered. In this way the most suitable length of time for the parts to be de-burred can be found without the need to re-build the circuit. It would also mean that different components, requiring different lengths of time, could be de-burred in the same machine, although not at the same time. This would allow the machine to be more flexible and save the company money.By using variable resistors the times could also be fine tuned to compensate for any errors in the timing caused by the tolerances of the components used and also any extra resistance caused by the non-ideal disposition of the components. Another improvement to the design would be to eliminate the extended first pulse from the 555 timer which causes the drum to rotate longer on its first cycle. Because the pulse is part of the operation of the 555 timer it is hard to alter before it affects the analogue out so one solution would be to have some form of clutch syste m between the drum and motor.This would disengage the drum from the motor at start-up and not allow the drum to be turned until aft(prenominal) the first cycle. Some form of circuit could be designed to control the clutch and only engage the motor after the first cycle has passed. Another alternative would be to have the clutch only engage after a set time compeer to the duration of the first cycle. This could either be a mechanical or electrical timer and would be required to engage the clutch after 7. 746 +1+8=16. 75sec. Some form of switch could also be incorporated into the circuit to reset the JK flip-flop each time the circuit is switched on.This ensures that the flip-flop always starts in the correct state and that the motor is always turning in the right direction for its first rotations. This switch would also allow the cycle to be restarted without turning the power off. Such a function could be simply implemented by connecting the reset pin to +5V via a switch. A final consideration when improving the circuit would be to alter the switching circuit for R6 in such a way that one resistor is always connected and connecting a second resistor in parallel with it alters the total resistance as shown in figure A.A-Alternative Switching CircuitPractical ConsiderationsWhile the motor circuit worked as required in the laboratory test, a number of other factors must be brought into consideration when the circuit is being designed for use in industry. One of the major factors has already been discussed in the section on EMC but there are many more will be short covered in this section. One of the most obvious differences between the test equipment and an industrial system is the motor being driven.For safety reasons the motor connected to the circuit was a low power motor but to drive a large drum a larger motor with a higher torque would be required. While the controller card used can only support motors with an operating voltage up to 30V, a similar contr oller could be designed to operate at much higher output voltages part still being run off of the same circuit. Another possibility would be to run a number of motors off of on control circuit. This would allow a much greater number of parts to be de-burred without the need for an exceptionally large drum. This would introduce the problem of fan-out however.The relatively low analogue output voltage of 1. 2V would have to be increased if a large number of controller cards were to be driven. The same is true of the voltages from the OR gates controlling direction. This is problem is easily rectified by using op-amps to boost the voltage. When the system is being used in a factory environment there are also a number of environmental issues to be deal with. There could be a great deal of dust or fine particles of metal in the air from the de-burring process, it is also possible that in an automated process the factory may not be heated.Placing the control circuit in a pie-eyed contai ner can resolve some of these issues, as this will prevent dust from affecting its operation. It would also be possible to incorporate shielding into this plate to improve EMC. The temperature issue is not very important, as it is unlikely that the operating ranges of the IC would be exceeded. For 74 series chips this is in the region of 0-70? C and 54 series chips have an operating range of about 50-120? C. The final consideration when constructing a system for industry would be ease of manufacture.If a large number of these machines were required the circuit would have to be placed out in such a way that it could be easily constructed on printed circuit boards. There are computer programs available to aid the designer in this process and it would be unlikely to cause a major problem. ConclusionsHaving designed and constructed the circuit it was felt that it met all of the given specifications although there were still a number of improvements that could have been made. These imp rovements have been covered briefly in the discussion section and given more time they could have been implemented in the circuit.As already mentioned the only specifications not met were that on start-up the machine should rotate for 3 seconds in one direction before braking and reversing. Using the clutch method mentioned in the discussions could solve this but the design brief given did not extend to cover the drum so has not been included in the final design. During the course of the project a number of other points became evident which greatly ease the process of designing an electronic circuit. Simulation using a computer package such as Pspice saves a considerable amount of time by allowing the circuit to be easily laid out and tested.Any changes required can be made easily without disturbing the rest of the circuit. Another advantage of Pspice is the ability to produce graphs of the outputs from the circuit, which can then be scaled, formatted and printed as required. To do this for the actual circuit requires very specialised and expensive equipment. In conclusion, the group felt that all objectives had been met and that the final circuit was successful in fulfilling its role. A number of important lessons were learned about the problems involved in designing a circuit to meet a real-world need and ways of overcoming these problems were found.BILL OF MATERIALS S. NO. ITEMS Quantity outlay 1. motor 1 2. Diode 3. capacitor 4. 555 timer 5. Relay switch 6. Coils 7. resistances 8. transformer 9. Wiring materials 10. Integrated circuit 11. Wiring board References1 Schematic induce with Microsim Pspice Herniter prentice Hall 3 Ed. Rd P250-2522 http//www. emclab. umr. edu/An Introduction to EMCUniversity of Missouri-Rolla EMC laboratory3 http//reality. sgi. com/csp/scvemc/emcdef. tmlEnsuring Compatibility Between the Electromagnetic milieu and Electric and Electrical Devices Kimball William, Chairman, IEEE EMC Education Committee4 http//www. howstuffworks. com/gears. htmHow gears Work5www. scribd . com6www. mechanicalprojects. comBackground Reading * Digital Fundamentals Floyd Prentice Hall 7 Edition t h. * Introductory Circuit outline Boylestad Prentice Hall 9 Edition t h. * Machine Design R. K. Rajput. * Kinematics Of Machine R. S. khurmi. * Automobile Engineering R. K. Rajput

King Henry Iv Part One – Falstaff Notes

Falstaff J. Dover Wilson Riot and the Prodigal Prince (1943) No on bum have missed the resemblance between Riot and Falstaff Falstaff serves 2 main roles in William Shakespeares King Henry IV break open One Alternative father figure to Hal The Vice (comedic representation) As a father figure to Hal, Falstaffs influence is juxtaposed against that of Hals biologic father King Henry IV. He influences Hal to steal and behave roughly inappropriately for a prince.This influence offers comedic relief to the audience from the court smell of the play and also fork overs a starting point/lifestyle from which Hal can develop. -Falstaff holds himself much above his setting, considering himself to truly be much greater than he really is he achieves this by such actions as partaking in humorous banter with the prince while in the tavern as well as telling lies about heroic deeds he presumably achieved. practise 3 Scene 3 line 10-15 Comic representation of Falstaffs virtues -defends himse lf and by doing so highlights his misdeeds -swore little gambled no more than 7 long time a week -went to a prostitute house not more often than every 15 mins -paid off his debts that he keeps burrowing -lived in a good moral compass Falstaff is associated with the Devil of the miracle play and the Vice of the godliness play and misleads Hal in such a way as to provide amusement and to lower Hals standing to provide contrast to his upgrade and in such a way as to allow for intellect to his character but is also obvious to the audience that the reign of this grand Lord of Misrule must have an end, that Falstaff mu be rejected by the Prodigal Prince, (J.Dover Wilson) Shakespeare also uses Falstaff in order to explain and palliate the Princes love of rioting and wantonness a devil in the coincidence of an old fat man a very different diverseness of poet, who imagined a very different kind of satin. J. Dover Wilson Falstaff symbolizes, on the wiz hand, all the feasting and good cheer for which Eastcheap stood, and reflects, on the other, the shifts, subterfuges, and shady tricks that shitty gentlemen and soldiers were put to if they wished to keep afloat and gratify their appetites in the London infernal region of the late sixteenth century.

History of immigration

Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, the wretched refuse of your lavish shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tots to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door Do our immigration policies still honor the words written by Emma Lazarus in 1883 on the base of the Statue of Liberty, and if so, what conflict do they turn forbidden on our thriftiness?The get out of whether our economy is impacted negativity or positively by unregistered workers and what should be done well-nigh It Is a widely debated topic in this country right now and reported about on all form of media (news, print, social) avail satisfactory on a dally basis. The Issue of unregistered in-migration Is Important It concerns fundamental, moral and stinting questions about how we deal with Immigration In our country. Various considerations have been put forwarded about this issue.We exit consider the argument from mass who feel the unregistered workers ostracisely affect the economy, why thos e popular opinions argon f equityed, review the evolution of immigration along with immigration policies and what be in magnetic core presently, what policies would promote change regarding immigration, as well as how we potentiometer build a bridge between the two arguments. I allow for then put forward suggestions for the introduction of ways in which we bum light the changes in policy to best suit both sides of the argument. It has been argued that undocumented workers drain the economy and Just benefit a few businesses at the expense of Americans citizens.An article written by Steven Amalgam, published in the city Journal summer 2006, supports the belief unskilled, undocumented workers benefit a fistful of Industries by getting low cost advertize, and the taxpayers foot the bill. In separate words, undocumented workers and their illegal families ar a drain on our economy. It is claimed that they disperse every penny they earn to their country of gillyflower, use public go they ar non entitled to, perform menial labor, do non pay taxes and their children abuse the right to public services and education.However, as the brochure by Neighborhood center states in fact thither is no question as to the importance of the buying power of undocumented immigrants. The reliable predictor of wage disparity is not whether someone is an immigrant (regardless of status), it is lack of education. foreign entrepreneurs with startups businesses have been behind 25 sh are of these businesses in this country. Three living quarters of the undocumented Immigrants pay payroll taxes and they contri scarcee $7 billion In well-disposed Security funds annually without the ability to collect Social Security.While the majority of the children of undocumented Immigrants are born here(predicate) legally and are eligible to public services and education, their parents for fear of deportation are negative impact on the economy is Just a myth there is a net bene fit to the kingdoms total frugal output increase it by a reported $21. 5 billion per year (USA Today). In addition, according to a study by the investment research company, bill & Poors, the cost of providing services to undocumented workers is largely offset by the economic benefits they generate. We can see why if you look at the economic effect on the country without researching your views toughly, on the surface you may be able to put together a shaky argument, but afterwards researching the facts you do see that undocumented workers actually boost our economy, as we see in Gordon H. Hansoms, The Economics and polity report of illegal immigration in the united States the current regime of illegal immigration, despite its faults, has been efficiently beneficial to US employers that they are doubtful about the capacity of Congress to improve the seat and therefore un willinging to take the political risk of supporting reform.The compile taxes impact our economy now while baby boomers are outset to collect their Social Security benefits they boost the system by the inconvertible funds of undocumented workers. Before we can understand how we arrived at the present immigration policies here in America, we must look endure at the evolution of immigration and immigration policy from the 1600 to present time. Our long economic history in America has been shaped by the groups of immigrants that have colonized here, what contributions to the economy they brought with them and how the immigration policy changed in response to the influx of distributively group of immigrants.We will start our review looking at a few immigration groups, the changes make to our immigration policies starting with the English Settlers with traders and their contributions to the economy to present day influx of Middle Eastern and Latin origin immigrants benefiting our economy with access to low cost and back breaking labor. In the 1600 hundreds the traders that were brought b y the English settlers not only brought the spices and hard goods to trade, they brought slave labor for trading as well.This group, African slaves would grow quickly to 20 percent of the population providing cheap labor, and since they were considered property, they were not allowed to be naturalized till 1870. some(prenominal) another(prenominal) contrary groups came and made contributions to the economy of cheap labor with their meat impact skills, work ethic and willingness to take on senior highly dangerous back breaking Jobs. With each new group the policy changed the first immigration law enacted in 1790 (after nearly a century of unregulated immigration and massive economic growth) began defining and restricting citizenship to the United States.The act of 1790 was revised, advertise restricting and adding requirements for obtaining citizenship. The Asian immigrants experienced a similar exclusionary period as did the Africans they were allowed to live in the US but we re not allowed to become citizens until 1943 when the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was repealed. President Ronald Reagan was instrumental in earning onward the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986.Many revisions have been made to the immigration laws, but t was never as publicized as after September 1 1, 2001 when fear of Terrorism brought the contain for reform so we can exclude individuals suspected to be terrorists. Presently the immigration laws are not an easy path to becoming legal and are not family friendly because they separate parents from their American born children Just life. Americas immigration system is outdated, unsuited to the needs of our economy and to the values of our country.We should not be subject field with laws that punish hardworking people and deny businesses willing workers and invite funny house at our borders. George W. Bush, February 2, 2005. George w. Bush and Barack Obama did not agree on many another(prenominal) things, but They shar e a belief that the high levels of illegal immigration are an indication of the current policy cosmos broken, and that immigrants by and large install a positive contribution to America. We need immigration reform that will secure our borders, and.. That finally brings 12 million people who are here illegally out of the shadowsWe must assert our values and reconcile our principles as a nation of immigrants and a nation of laws. Barack Obama, June 28, 2008. Two Presidents, from two different political parties, with very efferent political views share the same view that our immigration system is broken. What changes should be made to the immigration policy here in America? How will those changes affect the economy? What is the moral impact on families? These are questions which divide many philosophers, labor gists, political parties, the people within political parties, the people in nail salons and Americans in general.Peter brooklime (1999), a political philosopher, a ND suppor ter of placing restrictions on immigration that would all but end immigration to this country, believes the current immigration policies hour guess the American people and Jeopardize our nation. Brimless beliefs historically were support by Labor unions and their leaders, yet even these groups are realizing that the number of immigrant union members has been rapidly increasing (Migration Policy institute 2004) and if they do not begin to embrace the immigrants a large number of their membership base will disappear and possibly their existence as well.To the other extreme, Walter Block argues resembling tariffs and exchange controls, migration barriers of whatever type are egregious locations of laissez-flare capitalism (Block 1998 168). The parliamentary Party says they support immigration reform and point fingers at the republican Party for not having it done yet. Ironically, a Republican President back up and pushed for the most encompassing reform possible Amnesty in 1996. We need to arrive at a compromise of the two schools of thought.Yes we do have to comfort ourselves from terrorists and criminals, but not at the cost of our crops not being picked or produce being too high to purchase, our manicures and pedicures getting out of control price sis or our restaurants having to raise prices so high only the rich could afford to eat out. We need to also chastely take into consideration families. Why should I, a second generation American( maternal(p) side of my family) and a multi generation American( on the maternal side of my family), with children who are first generation Americans be denied my late mother in law to visit and stay with us as long as is mutually agreed upon.The Consulate in Ecuador at first denied us a endorse for my Mother in Law. I had to fight for my rights as an American to bring her home with me. They only gave her a 3 month visa. I also had to close my eyes after the three month visa dis pass over to her being illegally in America. So Americas immigration policy made this grandmother a criminal. While we ponder on what to do about immigration we must control ourselves from falling subject to xenophobia, misconceptions and political rhetoric.We do need to continue with researching the brings forth in their applications to come to America or that are here presently illegally. The paperwork involved should not be so unmanageable that we only further the economy by creating further Jobs in the immigration law field. If you have family here already and have been change to our economy through your hard work, contributing to our economy through your disbursement power and good civic behavior, why should you have a difficult path to legalization?Simplify paperwork, intensify background checks of those applying and their family members here and in their country of origin, require medical examination and community service components in the legalization path. Allow those that are here to pay a nominal fee, su bmit simple applications to change their immigration status from illegal to in process of globalization and come out of the shadows. This will really protect our borders by kno annexe who is here amongst us.Willingness to do good works for the many non- profit organizations that exist should be much more important than your monetary resources in your country of origin in any path to legalization. Policy should be put in place allowing immigrants here to move from illegal to citizen in a reasonable amount of time with the before mentioned components saturationened in so we can weed out the criminals not willing to live by our laws and founder to our society and support he growth of our country, while rewarding the immigrants that with their diversity and civic responsibility add to the strength of our country.These policies would improve the type of applicant, slew need for expense of immigration lawyers, and reduce the need to spend on expensive man power in INS offices, and em bassies, move the emphases on skilled, community minded, productive, family oriented immigrants willing to pay their taxes and contribute to diversity and economic growth of our wonderful country. We need to build a bridge between the main two arguments of public safety nickering terrorists and Jeopardizing our economy, as well as moral fiber with policies that will have protections of the many while also representing the fiber that made our country what it is.Allowing the right wing to impose restrictions on immigration based on fear is not in the best interest of our country. In conclusion, we are a nation of immigrants. The only Americans that truly belong here is those with Native American Indian ancestry. The rest of the American population is either descendents of immigrants or immigrants themselves some by choice and others forced to migrate due to refugee, slavery etc. Our countrified was made by immigrants, and this is a supporting case point to continue allowing immigrati on at a fairly high level.

Audio Lingual Method

1 GGGV 2044 METHODS IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND lyric poem Semester 2 2009/2010 AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD A word of honor (INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT) LECTURER DR. HAMIDAH BT. YAMAT AHMAD LISA KWAN SU LI A123040 TESL/2 2 1. 1 INTRODUCTION The strait-lingual carcass (ALM), by its very name sound and lingual refers to a words in forge approach that foc procedures on devil aspects of unrehearsed communication, namely sense of hearing and lectureing.Un corresponding its predecessor, the Grammar interlingual rendition rule, which focuses on yarn and create verbally skills, this approach chooses to emphasize on the head start two stages in the internal consecrate of talking to skill (listening, speaking, edition followed by writing) with the belief that assimilators who be better speakers and listeners consequently touch better readers and drop a liners. The ALM has a firm ft in the theories of twain structural philology and behavioral psychology, and thus inco rporates techniques and strategies that advocate the concepts and assumptions of actors line cultivation from both conditions of legal opinion.The structural linguistic scientistics view of address discipline says that lyric is learn through cognizance and specific attention to the patterns and structure of the wording. integrity of the ALMs briny characteristics is its use of twin and uses that draw scholarly persons attention to the patterns of the target lecture which atomic number 18 afterwards memorized and repeat to automaticity. talking to learning from the view of behavioural psychology on the other hand, occurs by conditioning and vesture constitution of accurate results to stimuli. The slump response for a stimulus is theoretical accountled by the memorizeer beforehand and whence drilled into the learners repeatedly until much(prenominal) responses become a garb that en adequate to(p)s learners to advantagefully produce accurate responses with out clues or prompting by the instructor. This discussion aims to nevertheless understand the audio-lingual Method and explore the advantages and disadvantages of employing it in the inspressing expression schoolroom. The author also puts out her recommendations for the use of the ALM in the help delivery classroom. 2. 1 HISTORY By the first fractional of the twentieth century, the manoeuvre Method had lost its popularity in the U. S.However, it is believed that the decline of the carry on Method brought intimately the emergence of the ALM. As Br confess (2001) puts it by the kernel of the twentieth century, the cultivate Method was revived and re asked into what was probably the most perceptible of all language teaching revolutions in the modern era, the audio-lingual Method. The U. S. educational institutions at the date windlessness believed that a reading approach like the Grammar Translation Method was more than practical than an oral peerless. Therefore the thirties and 1940s byword the Grammar Translation Method going strong in all schools crosswise the U.S. However, after World War II, the U. S. saw an urgent need for her to be orally proficient in the language of her affiliate as c lackly as foes. This led to a drastic change over in 4 the current view of language teaching from a mere reading approach to whiz with a heavier emphasis on aural and oral skills. Special intensive language programs were developed by the U. S. army which came to be knget as the the States Specialized provision Program (ASTP), or more simply, the Army Method. In the 1950s, the Army Method was renamed the Audiolingual Method. 3. 1 PRINCIPLES OF ALMSome of the main principles of language learning in the ALM ar verbalize by Alkhuli 2005 (as cited by Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim in the International Forum of pedagogy and Studies). One of these principles is that the se terminatet language learning process should be equal to that of first language acqu isition. This complies with the inwrought enunciate of language learning which is listening, speaking, reading and finally, writing. It is believed that the learner first learns to speak what he has listened to, hence read what he has spoken, and write what he has read.Therefore, the ALM emphasizes on listening and speaking skills in order to hasten the progress of reading and writing skills besides increase communicatory competency. A nonher principle is that the uphold language is best acquired by habit formation. A habit is created when an transaction is repeated and is subsequently produced 5 in response to certain stimuli most without conscious activity. This is achieved via the repetitive pattern practices that ar fail and parcel of the ALM. Translation of the target language into the native language is considered unwholesome and result forget acquisition of the second language.Such interpretations atomic number 18 believed to impede the domination or view of t he second language. When the target language is utilize in all component part in the classroom, learners learn to take aim calculate connections mingled with the vocabulary and its semantics in the target language itself, which is ideal for effective second language learning. However, these principles be merely assumptions. Counter-arguments include second language learning is accomplishedly contrasting from native language acquisition in many an(prenominal) incompatible aspects.In addition, the pictorial order of language learning that the ALM stresses on is immaterial because the four language skills tolerate be developed simultaneously quite a than sequentially. The learning of a second language is non necessarily a process of habit formation where responses ar elicited by stimuli, merely also involves the cognitive. Finally, translation into the native language has proven a multipurpose technique hence in learning a second language, demo in method actings suc h as the Grammar Translation Method. 4. 1 MAIN FEATURES As aforementioned, the ALM follows the inborn order of language learning.The use of repetitive drills is justified in shaping a new habit for learning the second 6 language. Stimuli-responses atomic number 18 evaluate and pay off ones atomic number 18 straightaway reinforced as conditioning, concurrent with the views of behavioural psychology. The native language also puzzle outs a stripped usance in the ALM. Only the target language is use indoors the classroom by both instructor and learners. untested material in the target language is also introduced in chat form, closest to a natural situational scope for learners to gain communicative competence and skills. postureing is through by the teacher whereby a special(a) structure of doom is spoken and learners repeat the sentence, mimicking its siz fitting patterns and inflection, and aiming for identicalness. Slips in learners orthoepy of words in the sent ence be immediately correct by the teacher to avoid formation of shitty habits. Grammar rules ar not taught explicitly still argon expected to be induced by the learners through the various examples and patterns that are exposed to them during the lesson.Contrastive analyses are also make between the native language and the target language in order to draw learners attention to differences in pattern, structure and sound system of both languages. 5. 1 TECHNIQUES There are many techniques industrious in the classroom that advocate the underlying principles (or assumptions) of the ALM, and are also establish on the aforementioned two main schools of thought for the said method. 7 One of the main techniques used is of introducing new learning material in the form of a dialogue. A model converse is analyzed, broken wad and memorized through mimicry. Dialogues are seen as a natural conversational ontext that go away aid learners in get intoing in condition(p) structures and vocabulary. Many drills are used in the ALM. The backward build-up drill (expansion drill) breaks down a embarrassing sentence into smaller parts. Usually the last phrase of the sentence is repeated by the learners and wherefore parts are added on, or expanded, until learners are able to repeat the complete sentence without further trouble. Single- one-armed bandit replenishment drills require the learners to substitute in cues wedded over by the teacher into a particular slot in the sentence. Multiple-slot switch drills on the other hand, require a higher(prenominal) level of competence from the learners.Learners must recognize particular slots within the sentence to substitute the cues habituated by the teacher, occasionally having to alter subject-verb agreements as well. different drills include the repetition drill, chain drill, transformation drill and oral sex-and-answer drill. (Refer to Appendix A) 6. 1 ADVANTAGES As compared to an essential method like the Gramm ar Translation Method, where reading and writing are so stressed on that speaking and listening skills are neglected, ALM does develop the aural/oral skills of learners. Learners through the ALM are able to figure in situational contexts competently. 8In addition, learners are more aware of the phonetic aspects of the language. Through framework and mimicry, learners pay more attention to proper pronunciation and intonation. Errors in pronunciation are immediately dealt with, plot of land correct responses are positively reinforced. Learners are sensitive to the intonation and are aware of their different functions of questioning, requesting, pleading and so on Through substitution drills, learners also learn to recognize the borders between the phrases that make up the sentence. They are also exposed to a variety of different sentences that restrain similar structures through repetition drills as well. noveltyal drills help learners inform with question tags and their synony mic answers, affirmative and negative sentences and even active and resistless ones. Such a wide variety of sentence and question structures help oneself to enhance learners communicative ability. 7. 1 DISADVANTAGES Although the drills that are the ALMs distinguishing feature whitethorn be considered one of its strengths, they are also its weakness. Such drills leave no room for creativeness, causing learners to lose interest or feel worldly in the classroom. When learners lose their motivation, it negatively affects their progress in second language learning.New vocabulary learned is also limited in context. Instead, the sound system and grammatical patterns are emphasized on more. Learners are taught set phrases in gruel repetition in response to certain questions, where the form and structure are 9 highlighted. Consequently, learners are just now drilled to respond correctly with answers that are expected of them without fondness much for its meaning. For example, the set p hrase, Fine, thank you, is taught as a response to the question How are you? which learners use even when they feel otherwise.This phenomenon is like to robots that sport no cognition and only give particular responses to particular stimuli There is seldom any variation in learners responses other than the ones that have been taught. Therefore, interaction and dialogue is very schematic and unnatural. In short, communicative competence is still called to question. Learners of the ALM whitethorn be able to participate in conversations, except they are rarely spontaneous and it is observed to be rather a case of regurgitating the redress responses in a certain situational context from memory.Should they not be able to recall the set phrases that have been learned, they are at a want as to how to respond to the questions and conversational prompts of the other speaker. 8. 1 RECOMMENDATIONS From the discussion above, it is lucid that although communicative competence is insuffic ient, the ALM drills provide learners with a camp of structures and grammatical patterns that form the basic foundation for communication. The challenge is to help learners apply the knowledge they have gained to communicating effectively and in a natural manner. 10However, this canfulnot be done if drills are continuously insisted upon in the classroom. A microscope stage of flexibility is postulate on the part of the teacher to allow spontaneous and natural conversation to take place after drilling them as well. Unguided dialogue practice forces the learners to apply what they have been drilled with into a communicative setting, fetching into consideration the meaning of the phrases learnt with relevance to the given situation. Model conversations can still be provided, but spontaneous ones allow for creativity and variety in responding according to the individual learner. Communication becomes more natural.With regards to learner motivation, the responsibility is lift by b oth the teacher and the learners themselves. The teacher ineluctably to, again, be tractile and allow for elements not necessarily ALM-like to be unified into the lesson, if only for the rice beer of breaking the monotone. Drills can still be occupied of course, but in more interesting ways like role play and corporal activities. In essence, the teacher should be creative in her strategies with the aim of increasing the communicative competency of the learners rather than teach by the book. Learners as well, play a major(ip) role in their own learning progress.They should offer a high level of self-motivation by actively participating in tasks and activities and being attentive at all times. 9. 1 CONCLUSION The ALM decidedly has its pros and cons in a second language classroom. However, the disadvantages and negative implications can be overcome if a slightly more discriminating approach to second language teaching is taken. Some teachers may mulishly hold debauched to th e rules of the ALM and refuse to stray from it. In such a case, the 11 mark of second language teaching should be questioned. Is ones homage to the method or to the goal of aiding learners in achieving communicative competence?If it is the latter, it does not matter what method is used in the classroom as foresighted as ultimately, learners gain valuable communicative skills. As Celce-Murcia illustrates (as cited by Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim in the International Forum of Teaching and Studies) Today, language savants are considered palmy if they can communicate effectively in their second or foreign language, whereas two decades ago the accuracy of the language produced would most probable be the major criterion contributing to the judgment of a schoolchilds success or lack of success. (1991, p. 125)One single method should never be used exclusively in the classroom because it shall always detain flawed. It is the teachers responsibility to determine her teaching goals and app ropriate methods to be used where an eclectic one might better achieve those goals. Therefore, the teacher of a second language must be prepared to convert and adjust her methods to compositors case the different learning needs of the learners. 12 addendum A present are examples of the different drills used in the Audio-lingual Method repeating drill Repetition drill is the normal drill, ordinarily used to teach the lines of the dialogue.Students are required to repeat after the teachers model until they are almost identical. twine drill The Chain drill uses mayhap the first few lines of a simple dialogue. The teacher begins by addressing a student, or asking him a question. The student responds, accordingly turns to the student beside him and asks him a similar question. The second student responds and the chain goes on until each student has participated. This allows for the teacher to check learners speech. Transformation drill The teacher may give learners a question, an d the learners are then required to contemplate an answer from the form of the question given, and vice versa.Or, an affirmative sentence is given and learners need to transform it into the negative. This can be used for teaching active and passive sentences, as well as direct and reported speech. Question-and-answer drill This drill allows for learners to practice answering questions accurately and rapidly. It can also be done the other way round, where the learners form the questions on cue. 13 REFERENCES Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim. 2009. Re-evaluating the authority of the Audiolingual Method in Teaching English to Speakers of other(a) Languages.International Forum of Teaching and Studies 5(2) 1-9. Britto, Rory. 2009. The Dissipation of Methods in ESL Expanding to Fill the Void. The Journal of program line p. 75-84. Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, p. 13-37. Second edition. New York Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Larsen-F reeman, Diane. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Second edition. New York Oxford University Press. Savignon, Sandra J. 2001. Communicative Language Teaching. speculation Into Practice 26(4) 235.Audio lingual MethodThe Audio lingual method or the Army Method is a style of teaching used in language Instruction. It is based on behaviorist ideology, which professes that certain trait of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of keep and correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback time incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback. So in the Audio Lingual Method, the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it.The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio linguals there is no explicit grammar instruction so that everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to p ractice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing that will result in a student receiving negative feedback.As mentioned, lessons in the classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the students. Not only are the students expected to produce the correct output, but attention is also paid to correct pronunciation. Although correct grammar is expected in usage, no explicit grammatical instruction is given. Furthermore, the target language is the only language to be used in the classroom. This method is one of the leash main ways to teach a foreign language.Along with the direct method, the audio lingual approach keeps the majority of the language instruction in the target language. Audio lingual teaching concentrates on drills that teach grammar while the direct met hod concentrates more on vocabulary. When the grammar of the target language is explained in the native language, the method is called communicative language teaching. The method relies on drilling, habit formulation, and the use of a language lab, which might remind you of your high school language class.Grammar is not taught outright, but instead language is taught in its correct grammatical structure. Although the method make sense for its original purpose and was successful in allowing basic communication. The method relies on drilling, habit formulation, and the use of a language lab, which might remind you of your high school language class. Grammar is not taught outright, but instead language is taught in its correct grammatical structure. Although the method made sense for its original purpose and was successful in allowing basic communication.The Audio-lingual Method is still in use today, though commonly as a part of individual lessons rather than as the foundation of the course. These types of lessons can be popular as they are relatively simple, from the teachers purport of view, and the learner always knows what to expect. But it has been heavily criticized, especially by linguist Noam Chomsky. The rigidity of the method left little room for the spontaneity of free-flowing conversation, which made it difficult to use the language in the real world.Audio Lingual Method1 GGGV 2044 METHODS IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE Semester 2 2009/2010 AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD A DISCUSSION (INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT) LECTURER DR. HAMIDAH BT. YAMAT AHMAD LISA KWAN SU LI A123040 TESL/2 2 1. 1 INTRODUCTION The Audio-lingual Method (ALM), by its very name audio and lingual refers to a language teaching approach that focuses on two aspects of language, namely listening and speaking.Unlike its predecessor, the Grammar Translation Method, which focuses on reading and writing skills, this approach chooses to emphasize on the first two stages in the natural order of language learning (listening, speaking, reading followed by writing) with the belief that learners who are better speakers and listeners consequently make better readers and writers. The ALM has a firm foundation in the theories of both structural linguistics and behavioural psychology, and thus incorporates techniques and strategies that advocate the concepts and assumptions of language learning from both schools of thought.The structural linguistics view of language learning says that language is learned through awareness and specific attention to the patterns and structure of the language. One of the ALMs main characteristics is its use of repetition and drills that draw learners attention to the patterns of the target language which are subsequently memorized and repeated to automaticity. Language learning from the view of behavioural psychology on the other hand, occurs by conditioning and habit formation of accurate responses to stimuli. The right response for a stimulus is modelled by the teacher beforehand and then drilled into the learners repeatedly until such responses become a habit that enables learners to successfully produce accurate responses without clues or prompting by the teacher. This discussion aims to further understand the Audio-lingual Method and explore the advantages and disadvantages of employing it in the second language classroom. The author also puts out her recommendations for the use of the ALM in the second language classroom. 2. 1 HISTORY By the first half of the twentieth century, the Direct Method had lost its popularity in the U. S.However, it is believed that the decline of the Direct Method brought about the emergence of the ALM. As Brown (2001) puts it by the middle of the twentieth century, the Direct Method was revived and redirected into what was probably the most visible of all language teaching revolutions in the modern era, the Audio-lingual Method. The U. S. educational institutions at the time still believe d that a reading approach like the Grammar Translation Method was more practical than an oral one. Therefore the 1930s and 1940s saw the Grammar Translation Method going strong in all schools across the U.S. However, after World War II, the U. S. saw an urgent need for her to be orally proficient in the language of her allies as well as foes. This led to a drastic change in 4 the current view of language teaching from a mere reading approach to one with a heavier emphasis on aural and oral skills. Special intensive language programs were developed by the U. S. army which came to be known as the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP), or more simply, the Army Method. In the 1950s, the Army Method was renamed the Audiolingual Method. 3. 1 PRINCIPLES OF ALMSome of the main principles of language learning in the ALM are stated by Alkhuli 2005 (as cited by Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim in the International Forum of Teaching and Studies). One of these principles is that the second language le arning process should be similar to that of first language acquisition. This complies with the natural order of language learning which is listening, speaking, reading and finally, writing. It is believed that the learner first learns to speak what he has listened to, then read what he has spoken, and write what he has read.Therefore, the ALM emphasizes on listening and speaking skills in order to facilitate the progress of reading and writing skills besides increasing communicative competency. another(prenominal) principle is that the second language is best acquired by habit formation. A habit is created when an action is repeated and is subsequently produced 5 in response to certain stimuli almost without conscious activity. This is achieved via the repetitive pattern practices that are part and parcel of the ALM. Translation of the target language into the native language is considered harmful and will hinder acquisition of the second language.Such translations are believed to i mpede the mastery or control of the second language. When the target language is used in all circumstances in the classroom, learners learn to make direct connections between the vocabulary and its semantics in the target language itself, which is ideal for effective second language learning. However, these principles are merely assumptions. Counter-arguments include second language learning is completely different from native language acquisition in many different aspects.In addition, the natural order of language learning that the ALM stresses on is irrelevant because the four language skills can be developed simultaneously rather than sequentially. The learning of a second language is not necessarily a process of habit formation where responses are elicited by stimuli, but also involves the cognitive. Finally, translation into the native language has proven a useful technique indeed in learning a second language, demonstrated in methods such as the Grammar Translation Method. 4. 1 MAIN FEATURES As aforementioned, the ALM follows the natural order of language learning.The use of repetitive drills is justified in shaping a new habit for learning the second 6 language. Stimuli-responses are expected and correct ones are immediately reinforced as conditioning, concurrent with the views of behavioural psychology. The native language also plays a minimal role in the ALM. Only the target language is used within the classroom by both teacher and learners. New material in the target language is also introduced in dialogue form, closest to a natural situational context for learners to gain communicative competence and skills.Modeling is done by the teacher whereby a particular structure of sentence is spoken and learners repeat the sentence, mimicking its sound patterns and intonation, and aiming for identicalness. Slips in learners pronunciation of words in the sentence are immediately corrected by the teacher to avoid formation of bad habits. Grammar rules are not taught explicitly but are expected to be induced by the learners through the various examples and patterns that are exposed to them during the lesson.Contrastive analyses are also done between the native language and the target language in order to draw learners attention to differences in pattern, structure and sound system of both languages. 5. 1 TECHNIQUES There are many techniques employed in the classroom that advocate the underlying principles (or assumptions) of the ALM, and are also based on the aforementioned two main schools of thought for the said method. 7 One of the main techniques used is of introducing new learning material in the form of a dialogue. A model conversation is analyzed, broken down and memorized through mimicry. Dialogues are seen as a natural conversational ontext that will aid learners in applying learned structures and vocabulary. Many drills are used in the ALM. The backward build-up drill (expansion drill) breaks down a difficult sentence into small er parts. Usually the last phrase of the sentence is repeated by the learners and then parts are added on, or expanded, until learners are able to repeat the complete sentence without further trouble. Single-slot substitution drills require the learners to substitute in cues given by the teacher into a particular slot in the sentence. Multiple-slot substitution drills on the other hand, require a higher level of competence from the learners.Learners must recognize particular slots within the sentence to substitute the cues given by the teacher, occasionally having to alter subject-verb agreements as well. Other drills include the repetition drill, chain drill, transformation drill and question-and-answer drill. (Refer to Appendix A) 6. 1 ADVANTAGES As compared to an extreme method like the Grammar Translation Method, where reading and writing are so stressed on that speaking and listening skills are neglected, ALM does develop the aural/oral skills of learners. Learners through the ALM are able to participate in situational contexts competently. 8In addition, learners are more aware of the phonetic aspects of the language. Through modeling and mimicry, learners pay more attention to proper pronunciation and intonation. Errors in pronunciation are immediately dealt with, while correct responses are positively reinforced. Learners are sensitive to the intonation and are aware of their different functions of questioning, requesting, pleading etc. Through substitution drills, learners also learn to recognize the borders between the phrases that make up the sentence. They are also exposed to a variety of different sentences that have similar structures through repetition drills as well.Transformational drills help learners familiarize with question tags and their corresponding answers, affirmative and negative sentences and even active and passive ones. Such a wide variety of sentence and question structures serve to enhance learners communicative ability. 7. 1 DIS ADVANTAGES Although the drills that are the ALMs distinguishing feature may be considered one of its strengths, they are also its weakness. Such drills leave no room for creativity, causing learners to lose interest or feel bored in the classroom. When learners lose their motivation, it negatively affects their progress in second language learning.New vocabulary learned is also limited in context. Instead, the sound system and grammatical patterns are emphasized on more. Learners are taught set phrases in gruel repetition in response to certain questions, where the form and structure are 9 highlighted. Consequently, learners are only drilled to respond correctly with answers that are expected of them without caring much for its meaning. For example, the set phrase, Fine, thank you, is taught as a response to the question How are you? which learners use even when they feel otherwise.This phenomenon is comparable to robots that have no cognition and only give particular responses to particular stimuli There is rarely any variation in learners responses other than the ones that have been taught. Therefore, interaction and dialogue is very schematic and unnatural. In short, communicative competence is still called to question. Learners of the ALM may be able to participate in conversations, but they are rarely spontaneous and it is observed to be rather a case of regurgitating the right responses in a certain situational context from memory.Should they not be able to recall the set phrases that have been learned, they are at a loss as to how to respond to the questions and conversational prompts of the other speaker. 8. 1 RECOMMENDATIONS From the discussion above, it is evident that although communicative competence is insufficient, the ALM drills provide learners with a multitude of structures and grammatical patterns that form the basic foundation for communication. The challenge is to help learners apply the knowledge they have gained to communicating effectiv ely and in a natural manner. 10However, this cannot be done if drills are continuously insisted upon in the classroom. A degree of flexibility is needed on the part of the teacher to allow spontaneous and natural conversation to take place after drilling them as well. Unguided dialogue practice forces the learners to apply what they have been drilled with into a communicative setting, taking into consideration the meaning of the phrases learnt with relevance to the given situation. Model conversations can still be provided, but spontaneous ones allow for creativity and variety in responding according to the individual learner. Communication becomes more natural.With regards to learner motivation, the responsibility is shouldered by both the teacher and the learners themselves. The teacher needs to, again, be flexible and allow for elements not necessarily ALM-like to be incorporated into the lesson, if only for the sake of breaking the monotone. Drills can still be employed of cours e, but in more interesting ways like role play and physical activities. In essence, the teacher should be creative in her strategies with the aim of increasing the communicative competency of the learners rather than teach by the book. Learners as well, play a major role in their own learning progress.They should maintain a high level of self-motivation by actively participating in tasks and activities and being attentive at all times. 9. 1 CONCLUSION The ALM definitely has its pros and cons in a second language classroom. However, the disadvantages and negative implications can be overcome if a slightly more eclectic approach to second language teaching is taken. Some teachers may stubbornly hold fast to the rules of the ALM and refuse to stray from it. In such a case, the 11 objective of second language teaching should be questioned. Is ones loyalty to the method or to the goal of aiding learners in achieving communicative competence?If it is the latter, it does not matter what me thod is used in the classroom as long as ultimately, learners gain valuable communicative skills. As Celce-Murcia illustrates (as cited by Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim in the International Forum of Teaching and Studies) Today, language students are considered successful if they can communicate effectively in their second or foreign language, whereas two decades ago the accuracy of the language produced would most likely be the major criterion contributing to the judgment of a students success or lack of success. (1991, p. 125)One single method should never be used exclusively in the classroom because it shall always remain flawed. It is the teachers responsibility to determine her teaching goals and appropriate methods to be used where an eclectic one might better achieve those goals. Therefore, the teacher of a second language must be prepared to modify and adjust her methods to suit the different learning needs of the learners. 12 APPENDIX A Here are examples of the different drills u sed in the Audio-lingual Method Repetition drill Repetition drill is the normal drill, usually used to teach the lines of the dialogue.Students are required to repeat after the teachers model until they are almost identical. Chain drill The Chain drill uses maybe the first few lines of a simple dialogue. The teacher begins by addressing a student, or asking him a question. The student responds, then turns to the student beside him and asks him a similar question. The second student responds and the chain goes on until each student has participated. This allows for the teacher to check learners speech. Transformation drill The teacher may give learners a question, and the learners are then required to formulate an answer from the form of the question given, and vice versa.Or, an affirmative sentence is given and learners need to transform it into the negative. This can be used for teaching active and passive sentences, as well as direct and reported speech. Question-and-answer drill This drill allows for learners to practice answering questions accurately and rapidly. It can also be done the other way round, where the learners form the questions on cue. 13 REFERENCES Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim. 2009. Re-evaluating the Effectiveness of the Audiolingual Method in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages.International Forum of Teaching and Studies 5(2) 1-9. Britto, Rory. 2009. The Dissipation of Methods in ESL Expanding to Fill the Void. The Journal of Education p. 75-84. Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, p. 13-37. Second edition. New York Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Second edition. New York Oxford University Press. Savignon, Sandra J. 2001. Communicative Language Teaching. Theory Into Practice 26(4) 235.